{"attempt":1,"datasets":{"ds_0017":{"description_shown":"| Variable Name | Description |\n| --- | --- |\n| (index) | Row index from the CSV export; carries no substantive information. |\n| state | Two-letter U.S. state postal abbreviation identifying the state associated with the observation. |\n| year | Calendar year in which the state held the referenced general election. Most elections occurred in November of even-numbered years, though some states held major general elections in other months or in odd-numbered years; the value here reflects the actual calendar year of that election. |\n| ln_x_cand_all | Log-transformed average number of newspaper advertisements per day placed by or on behalf of individual candidates in the seven days preceding the general election; constructed as ln(ads per newspaper-day + 1). Source counts come from hand-coding full newspaper issues, then averaging ad counts to the newspaper-year and aggregating to a state-year mean. Included offices typically comprise statewide executive posts, state legislatures, U.S. House, judicial, and many local offices; advertisements focused solely on parties are tracked separately, and candidate ads for U.S. Senate and the presidency are excluded from this summary measure. |\n| prim_sw | Indicator for whether, in that year, the state used state-administered direct primary elections to nominate candidates for statewide offices (1 = direct primaries in use; 0 = nomination by caucus/convention or other non-primary procedures). Reflects the institutional status in each state-year during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. |\n\nDataset Context:\nThis state-year panel assembles historical evidence on campaign communications during an era when newspapers were the dominant mass medium. Researchers reviewed issues from 90 local newspapers across 33 mostly non-Southern states between 1880 and 1930, focusing on the week immediately preceding each state\u2019s general election. Political advertisements were hand-coded at the ad level, distinguishing candidate-focused content from party-only notices. To make newspapers comparable despite different publication schedules and occasional missing issues, counts were normalized to advertisements per newspaper-day, averaged to the newspaper-year, and then aggregated to a state-year mean.\n\nThe offices captured in the primary advertising measure are those commonly elected across states throughout the period: statewide executives (e.g., governor, attorney general), state legislatures, the U.S. House, judicial posts, and many local offices. Candidate advertising for U.S. Senate and for the presidency was excluded from that main summary to keep the measure focused on offices most consistently affected by state-level electoral rules of the time. The log transformation adds one before taking logs so that years with zero observed advertising are retained on a continuous scale.\n\nThe panel spans a period of substantial institutional change often associated with Progressive Era reforms. States transitioned at different times to practices such as direct primary elections for nominating statewide candidates, and the dataset records whether a state employed direct primaries in each year. Because election timing varied across states\u2014some held major contests in odd-numbered years or in months other than November\u2014the year variable records the actual calendar year of the pertinent general election. 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